{"id":23220,"date":"2024-07-18T08:07:30","date_gmt":"2024-07-18T06:07:30","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.linseis.com\/analysis-of-thermoelectric-materials-the-figure-of-merit-and-its-measurement\/"},"modified":"2024-08-12T11:52:23","modified_gmt":"2024-08-12T09:52:23","slug":"analysis-of-thermoelectric-materials-the-figure-of-merit-and-its-measurement","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.linseis.com\/en\/wiki\/analysis-of-thermoelectric-materials-the-figure-of-merit-and-its-measurement\/","title":{"rendered":"Analysis of thermoelectric materials \u2013 the figure of merit and its measurement"},"content":{"rendered":"\t\t<div data-elementor-type=\"wp-post\" data-elementor-id=\"23220\" class=\"elementor elementor-23220 elementor-10431\" data-elementor-post-type=\"post\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-9eb8745 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"9eb8745\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-071d0c5 elementor-toc--minimized-on-tablet elementor-widget elementor-widget-table-of-contents\" data-id=\"071d0c5\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-settings=\"{&quot;headings_by_tags&quot;:[&quot;h2&quot;],&quot;exclude_headings_by_selector&quot;:[],&quot;marker_view&quot;:&quot;numbers&quot;,&quot;no_headings_message&quot;:&quot;No headings were found on this page.&quot;,&quot;minimize_box&quot;:&quot;yes&quot;,&quot;minimized_on&quot;:&quot;tablet&quot;,&quot;hierarchical_view&quot;:&quot;yes&quot;,&quot;min_height&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;min_height_tablet&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;min_height_mobile&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]}}\" data-widget_type=\"table-of-contents.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-toc__header\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<h4 class=\"elementor-toc__header-title\">\n\t\t\t\tTable of Contents\t\t\t<\/h4>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-toc__toggle-button elementor-toc__toggle-button--expand\" role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" aria-controls=\"elementor-toc__071d0c5\" aria-expanded=\"true\" aria-label=\"Open table of contents\"><svg aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"e-font-icon-svg e-fas-chevron-down\" viewBox=\"0 0 448 512\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\"><path d=\"M207.029 381.476L12.686 187.132c-9.373-9.373-9.373-24.569 0-33.941l22.667-22.667c9.357-9.357 24.522-9.375 33.901-.04L224 284.505l154.745-154.021c9.379-9.335 24.544-9.317 33.901.04l22.667 22.667c9.373 9.373 9.373 24.569 0 33.941L240.971 381.476c-9.373 9.372-24.569 9.372-33.942 0z\"><\/path><\/svg><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-toc__toggle-button elementor-toc__toggle-button--collapse\" role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" aria-controls=\"elementor-toc__071d0c5\" aria-expanded=\"true\" aria-label=\"Close table of contents\"><svg aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"e-font-icon-svg e-fas-chevron-up\" viewBox=\"0 0 448 512\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\"><path d=\"M240.971 130.524l194.343 194.343c9.373 9.373 9.373 24.569 0 33.941l-22.667 22.667c-9.357 9.357-24.522 9.375-33.901.04L224 227.495 69.255 381.516c-9.379 9.335-24.544 9.317-33.901-.04l-22.667-22.667c-9.373-9.373-9.373-24.569 0-33.941L207.03 130.525c9.372-9.373 24.568-9.373 33.941-.001z\"><\/path><\/svg><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"elementor-toc__071d0c5\" class=\"elementor-toc__body\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-toc__spinner-container\">\n\t\t\t\t<svg class=\"elementor-toc__spinner eicon-animation-spin e-font-icon-svg e-eicon-loading\" aria-hidden=\"true\" viewBox=\"0 0 1000 1000\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\"><path d=\"M500 975V858C696 858 858 696 858 500S696 142 500 142 142 304 142 500H25C25 237 238 25 500 25S975 237 975 500 763 975 500 975Z\"><\/path><\/svg>\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-8a9139e elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"8a9139e\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">What are thermoelectric materials?<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-ffaef65 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"ffaef65\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Thermoelectric materials can convert heat directly into electrical energy. This property is based on the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.linseis.com\/en\/properties\/seebeck-coefficient\/\"><strong>Seebeck effect<\/strong><\/a>, in which a temperature difference applied to a material generates a voltage. The reverse is the Peltier effect, which is usually used for cooling. A third thermoelectric effect is the Thomson effect, which describes the heat transport along a current-carrying conductor in which a temperature gradient exists.<\/p><p>Due to the possibility of directly using thermal energy, thermoelectric materials have become the focus of research and development. On the one hand, they can be used to generate electrical energy from primary energy sources; on the other hand, it is tempting to generate electricity from waste heat, thereby conserving fossil fuel resources and reducing the release of CO2 at the same time.<\/p><p>Since the electrical voltage induced by the Seebeck effect is very small (usually a few to a few hundred \u03bcV\/K), great efforts are being made to develop improved thermoelectric materials.<\/p><p>Classic thermoelectric materials come from the group of semimetals and semiconductors (IV to VI main group of the periodic table) or are alloys of materials of these groups, since the Seebeck coefficient is particularly high there. The Seebeck effect can be further increased by doping.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-1295146 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"1295146\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">What is the figure of merit?<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-16fa67b elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"16fa67b\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>In general, a figure of merit is a measure of the suitability of materials, methods, or equipment compared to alternatives.<\/p><p>The thermoelectric <a href=\"https:\/\/www.linseis.com\/en\/properties\/zt-figure-of-merit\/\"><strong>figure of merit \u201cZT\u201d<\/strong><\/a> describes the suitability of thermoelectric materials and is defined as follows:<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-b8b9694 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"b8b9694\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h4 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Equation 1<\/h4>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-83c7bca elementor-widget__width-initial elementor-widget elementor-widget-image\" data-id=\"83c7bca\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"image.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<figure class=\"wp-caption\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<img decoding=\"async\" width=\"221\" height=\"115\" src=\"https:\/\/www.linseis.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/07\/ZT-formula-2.png\" class=\"attachment-large size-large wp-image-10455\" alt=\"\" \/>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<figcaption class=\"widget-image-caption wp-caption-text\">where S: Seebeck coefficient [\u03bcV\/K]  \u03c3: electrical conductivity [S\/m]  \u03bb: thermal conductivity [W\/(m\u22c5K)]  at a temperature T. All these variables are temperature-dependent.<\/figcaption>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/figure>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-8405690 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"8405690\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Thermoelectric materials should have low thermal conductivity and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.linseis.com\/en\/properties\/electrical-resistivity-and-conductivity\/\"><strong>high electrical conductivity<\/strong><\/a> in addition to a Seebeck coefficient that is as large as possible. Materials of high thermal conductivity do not allow large temperature gradients; if electrical conductivity is low, no useful currents can be obtained.<\/p><p>Moreover, the figure of merit and temperature difference are directly related to the efficiency \u03b7 of a thermoelectric device, so this increases when ZT and \u0394T have large values.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-eb81973 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"eb81973\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h4 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Equation 2<\/h4>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-8b234ea elementor-widget__width-initial elementor-widget elementor-widget-image\" data-id=\"8b234ea\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"image.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<img decoding=\"async\" width=\"300\" height=\"98\" src=\"https:\/\/www.linseis.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/07\/Formel-ZT-Gleichung-2-Wirkungsgrad-300x98-1.png\" class=\"attachment-large size-large wp-image-10469\" alt=\"\" \/>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-4998487 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"4998487\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Optimization of thermoelectric materials<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-d73544d elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"d73544d\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>A wide variety of material classes exhibit thermoelectric effects of different strengths. For a long time, a value of 1 was considered the maximum figure of merit, but today some optimized materials achieve values of around 2 or higher.<\/p><p>As can be seen from equation 1, there are two different approaches to increase ZT: either the power factor S2\u03c3 can be maximized, and\/or the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.linseis.com\/en\/products\/thermal-conductivity\/\"><strong>thermal conductivity<\/strong><\/a> can be minimized. To achieve this, existing materials are improved, e.g. by doping, and new materials are developed. The latter can be achieved, for example, by nanostructuring, since this greatly reduces the thermal conductivity without greatly influencing the power factor. If thermoelectrics are used in industry, cost, toxicity and availability of materials are key considerations.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-8cead25 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"8cead25\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Measurement of the figure of merit<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-3ed0642 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"3ed0642\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Various methods are available for determining the thermoelectric figure of merit.<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-3b9f02d elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"3b9f02d\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<ol>\n<li>First, the individual parameters (Seebeck coefficient, electrical and thermal conductivity) can be measured, and ZT calculated according to equation 1.<\/li>\n<li>On the other hand, it is possible to determine ZT directly using the Harman method.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-c0c3b7e elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"c0c3b7e\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h3 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">1. Calculation of equation 1<\/h3>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-536134f elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"536134f\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Various <a href=\"https:\/\/www.linseis.com\/en\/products\/electrical-property\/lsr-3\/\"><strong>commercial devices<\/strong><\/a> are available for quasi-simultaneous measurement of the electrical conductivity and the Seebeck coefficient. Thermal conductivity is usually determined by the laser or light flash method. The direct result of this method is the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.linseis.com\/en\/properties\/thermal-diffusivity\/\"><strong>thermal diffusivity<\/strong><\/a>. If you know the density and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.linseis.com\/en\/properties\/specific-heat-capacity\/\"><strong>specific heat capacity<\/strong><\/a>.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-5c329c6 elementor-widget elementor-widget-spacer\" data-id=\"5c329c6\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"spacer.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-spacer\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-spacer-inner\"><\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-2d6449d elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"2d6449d\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>The thermal conductivity can be calculated therefrom by means of the following formula:<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-8709dbd elementor-widget__width-initial elementor-widget elementor-widget-image\" data-id=\"8709dbd\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"image.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<figure class=\"wp-caption\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<img decoding=\"async\" width=\"340\" height=\"127\" src=\"https:\/\/www.linseis.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/07\/Formel-Warmeleitfahigkeit.png\" class=\"attachment-large size-large wp-image-10487\" alt=\"\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.linseis.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/07\/Formel-Warmeleitfahigkeit.png 340w, https:\/\/www.linseis.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/07\/Formel-Warmeleitfahigkeit-300x112.png 300w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 340px) 100vw, 340px\" \/>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<figcaption class=\"widget-image-caption wp-caption-text\">where:  \u03bb: thermal conductivity [W\/(m\u22c5K)]  a: Temperature conductivity [m\u00b2\/s]  r: Density [g\/m3]  Cp: specific heat capacity [J\/(g\/K)]<\/figcaption>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/figure>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-28f2c3f elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"28f2c3f\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>All these variables are temperature dependent<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-3ad86f1 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"3ad86f1\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Therefore, a total of five (temperature-dependent) variables must be determined in order to calculate the figure of merit. An error analysis can be found in the literature [1].<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-7f0150a elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"7f0150a\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h3 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">2. Determinaton with harman method<\/h3>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-fb3a7a6 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"fb3a7a6\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>The Harman method allows direct measurement of the figure of merit. This is achieved by passing a small current through a rod-shaped sample under adiabatic conditions. The observed voltage drop is composed of an ohmic (U<sub>R<\/sub>; electrical resistance) and a thermoelectric component caused by the Seebeck effect (U<sub>th<\/sub>; thermal voltage). In contrast to the Ohmic component, which occurs spontaneously, the one caused by the Seebeck effect builds up slowly:<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-7cccb95 elementor-widget elementor-widget-image\" data-id=\"7cccb95\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"image.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<figure class=\"wp-caption\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"800\" height=\"439\" src=\"https:\/\/www.linseis.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/07\/LSR-Harman-1024x562.png\" class=\"attachment-large size-large wp-image-15330\" alt=\"\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.linseis.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/07\/LSR-Harman-1024x562.png 1024w, https:\/\/www.linseis.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/07\/LSR-Harman-300x165.png 300w, https:\/\/www.linseis.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/07\/LSR-Harman-768x422.png 768w, https:\/\/www.linseis.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/07\/LSR-Harman-1536x843.png 1536w, https:\/\/www.linseis.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/07\/LSR-Harman-2048x1124.png 2048w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\" \/>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<figcaption class=\"widget-image-caption wp-caption-text\">measurement with harman method<\/figcaption>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/figure>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-12f9d93 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"12f9d93\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>The figure of merit is obtained by dividing the two components:<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-7ff4a03 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"7ff4a03\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h4 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Equation 4<\/h4>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-4cd93bb elementor-widget__width-initial elementor-widget elementor-widget-image\" data-id=\"4cd93bb\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"image.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<figure class=\"wp-caption\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"171\" height=\"127\" src=\"https:\/\/www.linseis.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/07\/ZT-formula.png\" class=\"attachment-large size-large wp-image-10509\" alt=\"\" \/>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<figcaption class=\"widget-image-caption wp-caption-text\">Uth: thermoelectric (Seebeck) component of the voltage drop  UR: Ohmic (resistive) component of the voltage drop<\/figcaption>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/figure>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-51281f4 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"51281f4\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h4 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Literature:<\/h4>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-35f5662 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"35f5662\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>[1] A. Alleno et al., A round robin test of the uncertainty on the measurement.of the thermoelectric dimensionless figure of merit of Co0.97Ni0.03Sb3, REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS 86, 011301 (2015).<\/p>\n<p>[2] T.C. Harman, Journal of Applied Physics 29, 1373 (1958).<\/p>\n<p>[3] T. C. Harman, J. H. Cahn, and M. J. Logan, J. Appl. Phys. 30(9), 1351 (1959).<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-87d5950 elementor-widget elementor-widget-spacer\" data-id=\"87d5950\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"spacer.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-spacer\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-spacer-inner\"><\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Thermoelectric materials can convert heat directly into electrical energy. This property is based on the Seebeck effect, in which a temperature difference applied to a material generates a voltage.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":3,"featured_media":10443,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_acf_changed":false,"inline_featured_image":false,"footnotes":""},"categories":[106],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-23220","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-wiki"],"acf":[],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.linseis.com\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/23220","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.linseis.com\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.linseis.com\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.linseis.com\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/3"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.linseis.com\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=23220"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/www.linseis.com\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/23220\/revisions"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.linseis.com\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/10443"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.linseis.com\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=23220"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.linseis.com\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=23220"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.linseis.com\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=23220"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}